The cultural origins of the concept of hypnosis

The creation of a distinct concept of hypnosis owes its existence mostly to a charismatic 18th century healer named Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815).

Mesmer had a deep interest in Paracelsan astrological principles, and the supposed direct influence of heavenly bodies on human health, by means of what were believed by Mesmer and others to be measurable physical forces (as opposed to the subtle forces of later occult doctrines interpreting Mesmerism).

Mesmer first applied magnets to patient's bodies in elaborate theatrical rituals that often resulted in expected spasmodic muscular contractions and collapse, and often the cure of various kinds of illness. Mesmer favored the rationalist views of his time, taking on terms like gravitation and magnetism to originally describe his theories of his healing work, and how the subtle fluids within the body could be influenced by him.

Mesmerism caught on widely, attracting followers to many spiritualist, religious, and scientific variations of mesmerism, as well as to 'mesmerism' as a dramatic form of entertainment for its own sake ('stage hypnosis').

It was highly influential in a number of popular movements, some of which are still very popular today.

The clearest transition between Mesmer's animal magnetism and modern therapeutic hypnosis was represented by Manchester surgeon James Braid, who coined the term hypnosis (from previous use by French researchers) in 1843. The term refers to Hypnos, the Greek god of sleep, because most forms of mesmerism at that time involved the production of an apparently sleep-like condition.

Braid, as many scientists and physicians before and after him, recognized in hypnosis certain legitimate psychological phenomena of interest, but requiring much more systematic investigation to understand. Mesmer had come to believe that it was not physical forces via magnets but he himself that was producing the cures he produced. Others not long after Mesmer soon began to suspect that the human imagination played a much larger role in the process than did any physical forces or capacities of the mesmerist. This was important, because mesmerism went through a number of periods of great disrepute due to associations with occultism and various kinds of blatant charlatanism.

A split arose between those interested in hypnosis as a subject of scientific investigation and as an adjunct to medical treatment, and those who considered it a tool for personal or spiritual fulfillment, or for esoteric investigations of religious or 'magical' nature. Faith healing, mind cure, and Christian Science were all heavily influenced by hypnosis, and derived much of their impetus in the late 19th century from the reputation of Mesmer and later mesmerists. Various followers of the highly influential Theosophical Society and of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn magical fraternity found great affinity for the magnetic theories of mesmerism, which they often interpreted in a semi-metaphorical way rather than as literal electromagnetism.

In the early scientific study, Braid at first thought that hypnotic induction would yield a unique condition of the nervous system that was linked somehow to certain cures by suggestion. He later rejected this, and other physiological explanations of hypnosis, and emphasized "mental" factors almost exclusively. The theory of neural inhibition has never been completely rejected as applicable, however, though often considered insufficient by itself. Ivan Pavlov later greatly expanded on the neural inhibition theory in his concept of the physiology of sleep (as a progressive cortical inhibition, which turns out to be fairly accurate - in general if not in detail).

This neurological explanation of hypnosis was strongly rejected by Charcot, who believed that the best hypnotic subjects were 'hysterics,' and that hypnosis was therefore a manifestation of what was then considered the mental illness of hysteria. His belief turned out to be wrong, and his view of hysteria as a distinct mental illness as well, and his psychopathological view was rejected by the end of the 19th century. Two legacies of the neurological pathological theories of Charcot and the so-called "Paris school" of hypnosis that have endured are cortical inhibition theory and the later development of dissociation theory, though neither one serves as a complete theory of hypnosis on its own.

In the early 20th century, the foundation for most hypnotic theory was laid by the members of the so-called "Nancy school" of hypnosis (such as Liebault and Bernheim) who elaborated a theory of hypnotic suggestion based onideomotor action.

This theory had eventually replaced not only the early neuro-pathological view, but also Braid's early psychological theory, "monoideism," the theory that un-conflicted ideas automatically lead to actions. Ideomotor action theory says that ideas suggested by the hypnotist lead automatically to actions, which are then experienced by the subject as unwilled. Ideomotor action is another example of a useful but incomplete model of hypnotic responding. The Nancy school was perhaps most notable in their de-emphasis of hypnotic ritual and their strong emphasis on suggestion as a mundane though useful psychological process.

Sigmund Freud had originally studied under Charcot and had a deep interest in hypnosis for much of his life. In 1889, he shifted from Charcot's view to that of the Nancy school's emphasis on suggestion rather than hysteria, believing that patients often remembered repressed memories in a beneficial process under hypnosis. Freud was reportedly a very poor hypnotist, being limited to a simple authoritarian style of induction, and in 1896, he rejected hypnotic induction ritual as unnecessary and too likely to foster unwanted amorous advances by patients ('transference,' and the theory of hypnosis as an eroticized dependent relationship). Freud replaced the hypnotic procedure with simply placing his hand on the subject's forehead to help establish what he believed was the proper social relationship of doctor in dominance over patient.

What qualified acceptance of hypnosis in medicine that we have today is largely due to the efforts of pioneers in the experimental study of hypnosis, starting in the 1920's and 30's. Foremost early researchers were Clark Hull and his then student, Milton Erickson. Hull's 1933 discussion of scientific research into hypnosis (Hypnosis and Suggestibility) is still considered a classic.

Erickson later came to disagree with Hull on the important issue of fundamental approach, stressing the complex subjective inner processes operating in hypnosis, rather than the measurable correlates and standardized procedures promoted by Hull. Hull went on to make important contributions in learning theory, while Erickson went on to become the name most closely associated with clinical hypnosis today.

Milton Erickson died in 1980, but left a legacy of often zealous followers, a number of important contributions to the field, and several offshoot schools of applied psychology based on his core principles of indirect strategic therapy and suggestion, and based on hypothetical unconscious processes and indirect forms of human communication. Examples include Jay Haley's strategic model of therapy, the MRI Interactional model, the Erickson-Rossi hypnotic theories, Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP), and a number of later frameworks such as that of Lankton (1983) and Gilligan (1987). The 'Ericksonian' models deliberately blur the traditional distinction between hypnosis and other forms of therapy, and share this basic idea with the 'skeptical' view of hypnosis, which we will consider in the next section.

In addition to Erickson and Hull, modern scientific research into hypnosis is often associated with a period of intense experimental research in the late 1950's and early 1960's by notables such as J.P Sutcliffe, T.X. Barber, M.T.Orne, E.R. Hilgard, R.E. Shor, and T.R. Sarbin. The work of these researchers had been particularly influential on the current scientific view of hypnosis, especially as viewed in medicine.

http://www.hypnosis.com/whatishypnosis_history.aspx

http://www.margahealing.com/hypnotherapy-1.htm

http://www.souland.com/gurdjieff/hyphis.htm

在文化淵源的概念催眠

在建立一個獨特的概念催眠歸功於它的存在主要是為了 18世紀的具有魅力的醫治命名弗朗茨安東梅斯梅爾（1734年至1815年）。

梅斯梅爾了濃厚的興趣，在Paracelsan占星術的原則，假定直接影響天體對人類健康，以什麼方式，相信在梅斯梅爾和其他可衡量的物質力量（相對於微妙部隊後隱匿性理論解釋催眠）。

梅斯梅爾首先應用於磁鐵病人的身體儀式在精心製作的戲劇，往往導致預期肌肉收縮和痙攣的崩潰，往往是治療各種疾病。梅斯梅爾主張理性主義的觀點，他的時間，同時希望在條件 引力 和 磁 原來他來形容他的理論，治療工作，以及如何微妙的液體在身體內可能受到他。

催眠抓住廣泛，吸引許多信徒巫師，宗教和科學的催眠狀態的變化，以及'催眠'作為戲劇形式的娛樂為了自身的利益（'階段催眠'）。

這是很有影響力在一些流行的運動，其中有些今天仍然非常流行。

最明顯的轉型與梅斯梅爾的 動物磁性 催眠治療和現代的代表是曼徹斯特外科醫生詹姆斯編織，誰造的詞彙 催眠 （以前使用的是法國研究人員）於 1843年。這個詞是指睡，希臘神的睡眠，因為大多數形式的催眠術，當時的生產涉及一個明顯的睡眠狀況等。

編織，因為許多科學家和醫生他之前和之後，認識到在某些合法催眠心理現象的興趣，但需要更系統的調查了解。梅斯梅爾已經開始相信，這不是通過磁鐵的物質力量，但他自己，是生產治療，他製作的。其他不久梅斯梅爾很快開始懷疑，人類的想像力發揮更大的作用比在這個過程中沒有任何身體的力量或能力的mesmerist。這是重要的，因為催眠經歷了一個時期的若干重大受損，由於協會的神秘和各種公然江湖。

阿之間發生分裂，在催眠有興趣的題目，科學調查，並作為輔助治療，以及誰認為這是一個工具，為個人或精神上的滿足，或秘傳調查宗教或'神秘'的性質。信仰治療，精神治療，以及基督教科學都嚴重影響催眠，得出了其大部分的動力，在19世紀後期的聲譽和更高mesmerists幻術師。各種追隨者具有高度影響力的通靈學會及密封令金曙光神奇的親兄弟發現巨大的磁場理論，催眠術，他們往往解釋半隱喻的方式，而不是文字電磁。

在早期科學的研究，編織起初以為催眠誘導會產生一個獨特的條件，神經系統，不知有聯繫的某些治療的建議。他後來拒絕了這一點，和其他生理解釋催眠，並強調“精神”的因素為主。該理論的神經抑制從來沒有完全拒絕適用，不過，雖然通常被認為不足以自行。巴甫洛夫後大大擴充了神經抑制理論在他的概念的生理睡眠（作為先進的皮層抑制，這證明是相當準確的 - 如果不是一般的細節）。

這種神經解釋催眠強烈拒絕夏科，誰相信，最好的催眠受試者'歇斯底里'和催眠因此，表現了當時認為是精神病的歇斯底里。他的信仰被證明是錯誤的，他認為歇斯底里作為一個獨特的精神疾病，以及和他的心理病理認為拒絕結束時的19世紀。兩個遺產的神經病理理論，腓骨和所謂的“巴黎學派”的催眠是曾經經歷過皮質抑制理論和後來的發展理論的分離，但任何一方都提供了完整的理論，催眠自己。

在20世紀初，大多數的基礎理論，催眠的成員所規定的所謂的“南希學校”的催眠（如Liebault和伯恩海姆）誰制定了理論催眠 建議 基於 onideomotor行動。

這一理論最終取代了，不僅早期神經病理觀點，而且編織的早期心理理論，“monoideism”的理論，人居思想自動導致衝突的行動。觀念運動性行動理論說，建議的想法催眠自動導致行動，然後再經歷有關問題的非故意。觀念運動性行動的另一個例子是一個有用的，但不完整的模型催眠響應。學校的南希也許是最顯著的去重的催眠儀式和強烈的強調 建議 作為一個平凡的，但有用的心理過程。

弗洛伊德原先腓骨下進行研究，並有濃厚的興趣，在催眠的許多人的生命。在1889年，他已從夏科的意見，給該南錫學派強調的是建議，而不是歇斯底里，認為病人往往壓抑的記憶記得在催眠狀態下的調整過程。據報導，弗洛伊德很差催眠，只局限於簡單的獨裁風格歸納，並在1896年，他拒絕催眠誘導儀式是不必要的，也可能不需要戀愛的進步，促進病人（'轉移'和理論的催眠一色欲依賴關係）。弗洛伊德取代了催眠過程只要用他的手放在關於這個問題的前額，以幫助我們確定他認為是適當的社會關係，醫生對病人的優勢。

什麼資格接受催眠在醫學上，我們今天主要是因為先驅的努力，在催眠的實驗研究，開始於 20年代和30年代。最重要的早期研究人員克拉克赫爾和他當時的學生，米爾頓埃里克森。赫爾討論 1933年科研到催眠（催眠和暗示性）仍然被視為經典之作。

埃里克森，後來不同意赫爾的重要問題的根本途徑，強調主觀內心複雜的運作，催眠過程，而不是衡量的標準程序關聯和促進了赫爾。赫爾還做出了重要貢獻，在學習理論，而埃里克森繼續成為最密切相關的名稱與臨床催眠今天。

米爾頓埃里克森於 1980年去世，但留下的遺產常常痴迷者，若干重要領域的貢獻，學校和幾個分支，應用心理學的基礎上，他的核心原則間接戰略治療和建議，並根據假設的無意識過程和間接形式的人類交流。例子包括傑伊哈利的戰略模型治療的MRI互動模式，在埃里克森-羅西催眠理論，神經語言學程式學（NLP），以及後來的數字框架，如認為 Lankton（1983年）和吉利根（1987）。在'Ericksonian'刻意模糊模型的傳統催眠的區別和其他形式的治療，並分享這一基本思想與'懷疑'鑑於催眠，我們將考慮在下一節。

除了埃里克森和赫爾現代科學研究進入催眠往往與一期在激烈的實驗研究五十年代末和六十年代初的知名人士，如太平紳士薩克利夫，得克薩斯州理髮，檉奧恩大腸桿菌河希爾加德，R.E.紹爾和T.R. Sarbin。在這些研究人員的工作，特別是有影響了對當前的科學觀催眠，特別是在醫學上認為。